How Corrupt was the Roman Senate Actually?

One of many lasting legacies of Rome in fashionable society is the idea of a Senate, although it wasn’t actually what we consider as a Senate right this moment. In lots of nations right this moment, you will discover the same governing physique of elected or appointed representatives. Should you dive slightly deeper, you’ll be able to see completely different nations have very completely different concepts of what a senate is. Often in a bicameral legislature, that’s when a rustic has multiple legislative physique, the Senate acts as the upper meeting. This position may be official and the members are elected, such because the American Senate. In different nations it’s symbolic and made up of appointees, such because the Canadian Senate – to not be confused with the Ottawa Senators, who’re a foul hockey group. Nonetheless, the Roman Senate was very completely different from both the American, Canadian, or fairly probably any fashionable legislative physique calling itself a Senate.
Rome’s trauma as a former kingdom performs a significant position within the mythology of the Senate, each in its rise and its downfall. Within the Regal interval of Rome, Rome had its political and spiritual establishments established by kings. Romulus, the legendary founding father of Rome, established a lot of its political establishments. Amongst these political improvements he produced was the Senate. They have been elders from the highest households of Rome, and have been 100 members. Upon the legendary disappearance of Romulus in 716 BCE, the Senate started a year-long course of to decide on the following king, displaying that within the absence of a king, the Senate had a job to play even so early in Rome’s historical past.

The spiritual establishments that have been then created have been usually ascribed to the second king, Numa. He established the spiritual position of the Senate, and established a lot of the early priesthoods. The Senate selected the third king Tullus Hostilius in 672, and he constructed the Senate home and established Rome’s navy, and martial traditions. In response to Roman legend, the neighboring Etruscans then conquered them, and so they struggled with the Etruscan king of Rome, Tarquinius Superbus. Lucius Junius Brutus deposed the final king in 512 and established the Republic. The Senate dissolved the king’s powers between them, magistrates, and different positions. There have been no clearly outlined roles shared between the legislative and the chief branches of the early Roman Republic. Finally the Senate and Justice of the Peace’s powers turned extra clearly outlined.

Whereas students are usually extra sober in regards to the shortcomings of Roman republicanism than they’re about Greek democracy, it’s nonetheless vital to understand that Roman republicanism remains to be not our fashionable republicanism or democracy. There are key variations. For one, the Roman Senate was not egalitarian, even symbolically just like the Assemblies. It was an aristocratic physique, and one which had lots of energy invested in it. The Senators noticed themselves as belonging to the higher patrician class, and so they enacted insurance policies and legal guidelines that benefited their households and self pursuits. In different phrases, there was corruption, and lots of it. This corruption was meant to maintain the senatorial class in energy and enrich particular person members. This meant that senatorial households held lots of energy, which might finally result in the undoing of the Senate and its restructuring throughout the Principate period.

One other issue was that there was no democracy. Not even a shred of it. Apart from the Senate, and the complicated system of elected and appointed positions like consul, Justice of the Peace, proconsul, and so forth, there have been additionally assemblies. The assemblies have been the closest factor to a democratic physique, however that’s provided that you squint, and squint actually laborious. It was dominated by the higher lessons, and the Plebians, the unusual citizenry, have been vastly underrepresented, normally consisting of 1 voting block. The character of how the Assemblies labored meant that the Plebian representatives usually didn’t even get an opportunity to vote. The connection between the assemblies and the Senate is a sophisticated one, as every had their very own supply of powers, and the Assemblies have been meant to characterize the need of the folks, regardless that in observe it represented the rich.

In wars, the Senators made out like bandits. Effectively… actually, the legionaries did, however the Senators pocketed way more than the common legionary might. From spoils of wars, together with civil wars, Senators might make some huge cash. Senators have been already very wealthy throughout the Republic. Relying on the period and till property necessities have been lifted, a legionary wanted to personal property valued round anyplace between 100 to 400 denarii. In distinction, Senators owned tens of thousands and thousands price of such property, which included giant estates and farms within the nation, or estates within the metropolis staffed with tens to a whole bunch of slaves, whereas legionaries lived fairly meagrely. When Caesar raised the wage of a legionnaire from 125 to 225 denarii a 12 months, it was nonetheless thought of too little, but Senators lived off a lot, way more. This was in a interval when Rome was consistently increasing, each into Italy, and out into different elements of the Mediterranean. There was greater than sufficient cash to go round, and loads of points protecting the legion in line and staffed. A bit additional for the troopers would have gone a great distance, however the Senate was more than pleased to pocket the lion’s share.

One other key distinction between our fashionable senates and the Roman Senate is that the Roman Senate was under no circumstances a secular establishment. In all this, it is very important perceive that our fashionable concepts of faith and secularism should not one thing the Romans would acknowledge. That they had very completely different concepts of what faith and politics have been, and the way far the 2 overlapped. One might say our fashionable understanding of each and insistence on their separation is a protracted evolving discourse coming from a Christian critique of Roman faith and politics.

On all this, Roman faith had 4 most important faculties of monks: 1. The school of the Pontifs, which had numerous roles that ranged from Vestal Virgins, to the Pontifex Maximus, or head priest. It was essentially the most assorted of the universities 2. The Augurs who learn divinations for the Senate and the military, in addition to inaugurated temples and sacred areas. 3. The Decemviri who have been monks devoted to the Sibylline Books, a set of historical Greek prophecies and 4. The Fetials, the ultimate set of monks related to battle and diplomacy. Different faculties would seem later, however these have been the 4 most important ones related to Roman spiritual life. Why are we speaking about priestly faculties although? Effectively, let’s simply say the Venn diagram of Senators and monks was extremely overlapping.

Most of the monks have been Senators, although not all Senators have been monks. Senators turned monks by appointment, and within the Imperial period, by the emperor’s appointment. A priesthood was a lifetime appointment, and slots have been restricted. This brought about Augustus to open a brand new faculty of monks simply to fulfill positions for senators in priesthoods. There actually have been few limits as to the connection between the priesthoods and the Senate. The one monks with vital limits have been the Pontiff’s Flamens, as a result of individuality their monks have been afforded in comparison with different faculties. Flamens weren’t allowed to turn into magistrates till later throughout the empire, and so they have been allowed a really restricted time away from town of Rome, or from their very own mattress relying on the sub-order of the priesthood. This was not good in the event you lived or had duties exterior of the capital. The opposite priest that was fully barred from any political responsibility was the Sacred King. The Sacred King was a part of the school of Pontiffs and he inherited the spiritual duties of the traditional kings. It isn’t laborious to think about why he was barred from responsibility, contemplating Rome’s trauma in regards to the Regal days.

The emperors rapidly realized that the priestly faculties have been a great way to maintain senatorial pals completely satisfied, enemies flattered, and usually train energy. Within the Empire, it was the emperors who might appoint priestly positions. No matter empire or republic, the monks of the Pontifex faculty have been those who put ahead spiritual legal guidelines and it was as much as the Senate to approve them, making their relationship fairly symbiotic. Senators have been so used to witnessing the monks in motion, that for sure priesthoods just like the Augurs, the training course of may be fairly straightforward since they witnessed the monks in motion for a few years as a Senator. The Augurs inaugurated the Senate-Home as a Templum, a sacred area.

Girls have been barred from the place of Senator, as they have been of most priesthoods aside from one well-known exception, the place of Vestal Virgins. Even the Vestal Virgins have been linked to the Senate. Whereas solely younger ladies might turn into Vestal Virgins, these ladies have been usually drawn from the Senatorial class, and had Senators as members of the family. Whereas some Senators didn’t need their daughters to turn into Vestal Virgins, others competed with one another to have the Emperor appoint their daughters. Throughout the Republic, the Vestal Virgins have been devoted to the Goddess of the Fireplace. Throughout the Empire, they shifted their duties to devotions of the Emperor and his household, whereas nonetheless sustaining their connection to the fireplace, connecting the Emperor on to the center of the Roman family no matter class. Should you have been an bold senator, having your daughter be a priestess of the Emperor and the Fireplace was an excellent factor.

Clearly that is usually very completely different from how our fashionable senates or legislative our bodies run or work together with faith. Had been the Romans themselves alarmed in regards to the focus of energy in such a small group of individuals just like the monks and senators? Contemplating that the Senate, at its strongest, was drawn from the Patrician and Equestrian lessons, and sought to pay attention energy on them, that they had little regard for what the Plebians thought. In concept, the Justice of the Peace was speculated to characterize the need of the Plebians, however the Senate fortified itself over the centuries. The focus of energy is what we might name a characteristic, not a bug. As Cicero put it: “worship of the gods and the very best pursuits of the state have been within the fingers of the identical males,” and that was how he favored it.

So, the place did our historical template for contemporary legislative methods go unsuitable?
Earlier than the emperors, it was highly effective males like Pompey the Nice and Julius Caeser who started to undermine the senate. Males like these two set the stage for what was to return later. You will need to notice that the Emperors weren’t kings throughout the principate interval. They have been the excessive monks, gods, and had king-like energy, however they needed to carry out a fragile dance. The Senate wasn’t a lot the companion they danced with, it was the dance ground. That is because it was throughout the Principate, the interval when the Emperors have been shrouded in layers of legal guidelines, rituals, and something they may do to not be portrayed as kings. They pretended to share energy, whereas concentrating that energy on themselves. The Senate had an enormous half to play on this. They allowed the Empire to occur, and even hailed Octavian because the saviour of the Roman republic. The Senate made the place of emperor by a posh stacking of non secular, civil, and navy titles upon him. Through the years the Emperors higher reshaped the Senate to bend to their wills.

This began in a approach earlier than the emperors, underneath dictators like Julius Caeser who ballooned the Senate to 1000 members. Octavian trimmed that quantity all the way down to round 600. Octavian and Julius earlier than him each actually reshaped the Senate to go well with them, however Octavian’s reforms saved that 600 determine comparatively steady. He additionally put in morality clauses, wealth clauses, and different limiting elements that noticed who might turn into and stay a senator change beginning in 18 BCE. That mentioned, maybe as an influence play, he helped members who didn’t meet sure necessities turn into senators, even when it went towards his personal necessities. Very artful, and in step with Augustus Caeser’s persona and methodology of politics. Augustus additionally created the formal senatorial class. New senators got the place for all times, in addition to for 2 generations of their households: a son and grandson. This new senatorial class meant that the Emperors might form a number of generations down the road into a brand new class of politicians that have been loyal to them. Previous Patrician households might proceed, in the event that they confirmed loyalty, however this opened the door to new members, patrician, equestrian, or plebians, so long as they met the necessities, or might present the proper appreciation for an Emperor who waived their necessities.
This led to an attention-grabbing consequence that helped give the empire an more and more cosmopolitan reorientation. Even underneath the Republic, Rome expanded far past the borders of town and Italy, but energy was concentrated within the Senate from town itself. In some methods, this may proceed at first of the Empire. With the creation of the brand new senatorial class, it allowed senators to return from exterior of the Everlasting Metropolis and from the brand new territories the Empire expanded into. Finally, even the emperors themselves would come from exterior of town of Rome and Italy altogether, however it was the Senate that started to indicate this cosmopolitan facet of the Empire.

Regardless of how a lot weaker the Senate was throughout the Empire, that assertion comes with an enormous asterisk. Throughout the Principate interval, all emperors have been senators earlier than donning the purple. However in addition to this, how precisely was it weakened underneath the emperors?

Earlier than Augustus, lots of the procedures and duties of the Senate weren’t enshrined in writing however have been extra unwritten customs. Augustus pounced on that weak spot to reshape what the Senate actually meant. He didn’t transform procedures, however enshrined a number of points of the emperorship, and its position within the Senate. Primarily, in concept the emperor was a patrician senator; in observe, senators knew they may not overtly refuse an emperor’s request. Virtually immediately, the Senate turned a sham when it got here to issues of curiosity to the Emperor. He couldn’t be overtly defied. That mentioned, the purpose of the principate was in a solution to faux that Rome was nonetheless a Republic, and that meant displaying respect to the Senate as an establishment of the Republic. So long as the Senate stood and appeared to retain its authority, it was enterprise as normal.

So, what occurred to the Senate within the later days of the Empire? Effectively it by no means actually went away till the Byzantine Empire did. Emperor Constantine established a second senate in Constantinople. Within the later Empire when the capital was moved there, the Senate took up a special position, and was basically a special physique. Senators have been introduced up by way of the system of administrative paperwork the later empire was recognized for. It was extra of an advisory physique for the emperor. The senate performed a job in selecting a brand new emperor, together with the military, or in deposing emperors, however it was a really completely different senate than that of the Republic and early Empire. A noticeable distinction usually not mentioned is the shedding of its older spiritual position. By this level, Rome was Christian, and no matter church, Christianity functioned very otherwise from the traditional Roman faith. It didn’t have priestly faculties, or a Senate, and neither did the monks of the church have the ability to seriously change their faith the way in which the Roman priestly faculties and Senate might. The Christians themselves positioned limits between church and state, as a response to the wedding of each underneath the Rome, “Render unto Caesar what belongs to Caesar and render unto God what belongs to God.” The Senate handed right into a purely political and administrative physique. The Byzantine Senate continued on this completely different type and performed its position within the historical past of the later Roman Empire, serving to to position and depose Emperors till its dissolution on the finish of the Empire.

Wanting again from a contemporary lens, it isn’t straightforward to say the Senate is sweet or evil. Passing ethical judgements on historical establishments will not be one thing inherently helpful, however since we inherited this mannequin of presidency, at the very least on the floor, it is very important consider its historical past. The Roman Senate in the end didn’t dwell as much as its personal function. Within the heights of the Republic, the Senators maintained management over the decrease lessons, and grew wealthy and fats off fixed wars and enlargement. Because it grew, it began to organize the way in which for its personal decline. First, it paved the way in which for the return of the autocracy it so feared underneath the kings. It used its immense energy to help the return of an autocratic determine within the Emperor till the emperors stripped the Senate of its free will and subjugated it. Lastly, any spiritual significance of the Senate was stripped by the point Rome Christianized, making it much more of a shell of its authentic intent. That mentioned, was all of it dangerous? The Senate began to replicate the cosmopolitan nature of the Empire underneath successive emperors. Whereas the Senate died within the West, within the East it continued as a form of system of checks on the emperors. Its secularization underneath Christianity and its gradual weakening underneath the Empire set it up because the ancestor of our fashionable type of authorities. Was all of it dangerous? No, and like all historical past, it’s best realized from and studied, particularly as on this case what the Roman Senate actually was and what we so usually consider it as right this moment due to the phrase “senate” could be very completely different.

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